Can Renewables Make a Country Energy Independen

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Q1 – Eurostat – Energy in Europe: imports dependency https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/wdn-20260318-1

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Energy dependence is defined as the ratio of net energy imports (imports minus exports) divided by the total energy consumption (gross available energy) of the country or region."

"The energy imports dependency rate in the EU was 57%, which means that nearly 60% of the EU's energy needs were met by net imports. However, the dependency rate varied across EU countries. The highest levels were found in Malta (98%), Luxembourg (91%) and Cyprus (88%), while the lowest dependency was in Estonia (5%), Sweden (27%) and Latvia (29%)."

"In 2024, the main energy product category imported was oil and petroleum products (including crude oil, which is the main component), accounting for 67% of energy imports into the EU, followed by natural gas (24%), solid fossil fuels (4%), electricity (3%), and renewable energy (2%)."

Q2 – IEA – World Energy Outlook 2022, Energy security in energy transitions https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022/energy-security-in-energy-transitions

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Energy security is not just about having uninterrupted access to energy, but also about securing energy supplies at an affordable price."

"New vulnerabilities emerge as the world builds a new clean energy system."

Q3 – Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System – European Energy Import Dependency https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/european-energy-import-dependency-20250416.html

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"In 2022, the dependency ratio reached its highest point over the sample period of 62.5 percent, consistent with Eurostat (2024)."

Q4 – Carbon Brief (citing IEA, Renewables 2025) – IEA: Renewables have cut fossil-fuel imports for more than 100 countries https://www.carbonbrief.org/iea-renewables-have-cut-fossil-fuel-imports-for-more-than-100-countries

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"In total, the IEA identified 107 countries that had reduced their dependence on fossil fuel imports for electricity generation, to some extent due to the deployment of renewables other than hydropower."

"In doing so, the fuel-importing countries saved more than $1.3tn between 2010 and 2023 that would otherwise have been spent on fossil fuels from overseas."

"Each gigawatt-hour (GWh) of renewable power produced has avoided the need for 2-3GWh of fossil fuels, it explains."

"The IEA stresses that renewables 'inherently strengthen energy supply security', because they generate electricity domestically, while also 'improving…economic resilience' in fossil-fuel importer countries."

Q5 – European Commission (Directorate-General for Energy) – REPowerEU 3 years on https://energy.ec.europa.eu/news/repowereu-3-years-commission-takes-stock-progress-phase-out-russian-fossil-fuels-2025-05-16_en

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Imports of Russian gas dropped from 150 billion cubic meters (bcm) in 2021 to 52 bcm in 2024 – with the share of Russian gas imports falling from 45% to 19%."

"Crude oil imports from Russia are down from 27% to just 3% and coal imports reduced to zero."

"Industry estimates that installed wind and solar capacity has increased by 58% cumulatively between 2021 and 2024, saving around 38 bcm of gas over 3 years."

Q6 – World Bank – Solar Photovoltaic Power Potential by Country https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/solar-photovoltaic-power-potential-by-country

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The potential for electricity generation from solar photovoltaic sources in most countries dwarfs their current electricity demand."

"Around 20% of the global population lives in 70 countries boasting excellent conditions for solar PV."

"The difference in average practical potential between countries with the highest potential (e.g. Namibia) and the lowest (e.g. Ireland) is slightly less than a factor of two."

"In total, 93% of the global population lives in countries that have an average daily solar PV potential between 3.0 and 5.0 kWh/kWp."

Q7 – IRENA – Global Atlas for Renewable Energy https://www.irena.org/Energy-Transition/Project-Facilitation/Renewable-potential-assessment/Global-Atlas

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The initiative, coordinated by IRENA, is aimed at closing the gap between countries that have access to the necessary data and expertise to evaluate the potential for renewable energy deployment in their countries and those that lack these elements."

Q8 – IRENA – Renewable capacity highlights https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2026/Mar/IRENA_DAT_RE_capacity_highlights_2026.pdf

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

At the end of 2025, global renewable power capacity amounted to 5,149 GW. Solar, in line with the previous year, accounted for the largest share of the global total, with a capacity of 2,392 GW.

Q9 – IEA – Solar PV Global Supply Chains, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/solar-pv-global-supply-chains/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Today, China's share in all the manufacturing stages of solar panels (such as polysilicon, ingots, wafers, cells and modules) exceeds 80%. This is more than double China's share of global PV demand."

"The world will almost completely rely on China for the supply of key building blocks for solar panel production through 2025. Based on manufacturing capacity under construction, China's share of global polysilicon, ingot and wafer production will soon reach almost 95%."

"Demand for silver for solar PV manufacturing in 2030 could exceed 30% of total global silver production in 2020 – up from about 10% today."

"Trade restrictions are expanding, risking slower deployment of solar PV. As trade is critical to provide the diverse materials needed to make solar panels and deliver them to final markets, supply chains are vulnerable to trade policy risks."

"New solar PV manufacturing facilities along the supply chain could attract USD 120 billion investment by 2030."

"Currently, the cost competitiveness of existing solar PV manufacturing is a key challenge to diversifying supply chains. China is the most cost-competitive location to manufacture all components of the solar PV supply chain. Costs in China are 10% lower than in India, 20% lower than in the United States, and 35% lower than in Europe."

Q10 – IEA – News: „The world needs more diverse solar panel supply chains..." https://www.iea.org/news/the-world-needs-more-diverse-solar-panel-supply-chains-to-ensure-a-secure-transition-to-net-zero-emissions

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"China's share in all the key manufacturing stages of solar panels exceeds 80% today, according to the report, and for key elements including polysilicon and wafers, this is set to rise to more than 95% in the coming years, based on current manufacturing capacity under construction."

Q11 – IEA – Renewable Energy Market Update, June 2023 https://www.iea.org/reports/renewable-energy-market-update-june-2023/is-there-enough-global-wind-and-solar-pv-manufacturing-to-meet-net-zero-targets-in-2030

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"In 2022, global solar PV manufacturing capacity increased by over 70% to reach almost 450 GW, with China accounting for over 95% of new facilities throughout the supply chain. In 2023 and 2024, global solar PV manufacturing capacity is expected to double, with China again claiming over 90% of this increase."

"Unlike solar PV manufacturing, wind equipment production is less concentrated geographically, as suppliers prefer to locate production plants close to demand centres due to the high costs and risks associated with transporting large and fragile components over long distances."

Q12 – IEA – Energy Technology Perspectives 2023, Clean energy supply chains vulnerabilities https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2023/clean-energy-supply-chains-vulnerabilities

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"China holds at least 60% of the world's manufacturing capacity for most mass-manufactured technologies (e.g. solar PV, wind systems and batteries), and 40% of electrolyser manufacturing. Europe is generally a net importer, with the exception of wind turbine components; about one-quarter of electric cars and batteries, and nearly all solar PV modules and fuel cells are imported, mostly from China."

Q13 – IEA – Global EV Outlook 2025, Electric vehicle batteries https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025/electric-vehicle-batteries

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Global battery (cell) manufacturing capacity grew almost 30% in 2024 to reach more than 3 TWh – three times EV and battery storage demand in the same year. About 85% of global manufacturing capacity is in China, showing little change from 2023, and over 75% is owned by Chinese producers."

"This expansion would lead global manufacturing capacity to grow to about 6.5 TWh (and more than 9 TWh if accounting for all announcements), up from 3.3 TWh in 2024, and reduce China’s share of global manufacturing capacity to about two-thirds by 2030, down from 85% in 2024."

"Low critical mineral prices are primarily driven by supply surplus, which is making it difficult for some mining companies to compete, thus increasing the level of supply chain concentration among established players."

"Due to feedstock limitations, it will take about a decade before recycling has a significant impact on reducing primary mineral demand."

"Nearly all the LFP batteries for electric cars sold in Europe or the United States were produced in China, which today has a de facto monopoly on this type of battery."

Q14 – IEA – Global EV Outlook 2026, Electric vehicle batteries https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2026/electric-vehicle-batteries

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"China, Europe and North America together accounted for about 95% of global output between 2023 and 2025, with China being by far the largest producer, accounting for over 80% of the total in 2025."

Q15 – IEA – The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, The state of play https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/the-state-of-play

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Compared with fossil fuel supply, the supply chains for clean energy technologies can be even more complex (and in many instances, less transparent). In addition, the supply chain for many clean energy technologies and their raw materials is more geographically concentrated than that of oil or natural gas."

"By contrast, a shortage or spike in the price of a mineral required for producing batteries and solar panels affects only the supply of new EVs or solar plants. Consumers driving existing EVs or using solar-powered electricity are not affected."

"Notably, oil burns up when it is used, requiring continuous inputs to run assets. However, minerals are a component of infrastructure, with the potential to be recovered and recycled at the end of the infrastructure lifetime."

"There are multiple minerals now in play for the energy sector, each with its own complexities and supply dynamics."

"Unlike oil, which is combusted on an ongoing basis, minerals and metals are permanent materials that can be reused and recycled continuously with the right infrastructure and technologies in place."

Q16 – IEA – Energy Technology Perspectives 2023, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2023/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"For mass-manufactured technologies like wind, batteries, electrolysers, solar panels and heat pumps, the three largest producer countries account for at least 70% of manufacturing capacity for each technology – with China dominant in all of them."

Q17 – IEA – News: „Clean energy demand for critical minerals set to soar..." https://www.iea.org/news/clean-energy-demand-for-critical-minerals-set-to-soar-as-the-world-pursues-net-zero-goals

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"A typical electric car requires six times the mineral inputs of a conventional car, and an onshore wind plant requires nine times more mineral resources than a similarly sized gas-fired power plant."

"Unlike oil – a commodity produced around the world and traded in liquid markets – production and processing of many minerals such as lithium, cobalt and some rare earth elements are highly concentrated in a handful of countries, with the top three producers accounting for more than 75% of supplies."

Q18 – IEA – Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The average market share of the top three refining nations of key energy minerals rose from around 82% in 2020 to 86% in 2024 as some 90% of supply growth came from the top single supplier alone: Indonesia for nickel and China for cobalt, graphite and rare earths."

"Mining activity shows a similar trend, though it remains somewhat less concentrated than refining. Most recent growth in mining output stemmed from established producers such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) for cobalt, Indonesia for nickel, and China for graphite and rare earths. As a result, the average market share of the top three mining countries for key energy minerals rose from 73% in 2020 to 77% in 2024. Lithium was a notable exception, with a major portion of supply growth coming from emerging producers like Argentina and Zimbabwe. Looking ahead, some diversification is coming into view for the mining of lithium, graphite and rare earths. However, geographical concentration is expected to intensify for copper, nickel and cobalt."

"The current mine project pipeline points to a potential 30% supply shortfall by 2035 due to declining ore grades, rising capital costs, limited resource discoveries and long lead times."

"Amid rising supply concentration, an expanding number of export control measures on critical minerals have been introduced, particularly since 2023."

"The impact of a critical minerals supply shock can be far-reaching, bringing higher prices for consumers and reducing industrial competitiveness. A sustained supply shock for battery metals could increase global average battery pack prices by as much as 40-50%. There is already a major battery manufacturing cost gap across regions. Prolonged supply disruptions could widen cost disadvantages for other battery manufacturers vis-à-vis China, potentially hindering efforts to diversify manufacturing supply chains."

"China produces 75% of the world's purified phosphoric acid, essential for LFP batteries, and 95% of high-purity manganese sulphate, a key input for manganese-rich and sodium-ion battery chemistries."

"Projects in diversified regions are typically around 50% higher than for incumbent producers."

"In 2024, 7% of global copper supply was at risk of disruption due to floods or droughts, a figure that is set to rise in the future."

Q19 – IEA – Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025, Overview of outlook for key minerals https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025/overview-of-outlook-for-key-minerals

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The share of mined lithium supply from the top three producers is set to fall below 70% by 2035, down from over 75% in 2024."

Q20 – IEA – Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2024/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Over 90% of battery-grade graphite and 77% of refined rare earths in 2030 originate from China."

Q21 – IEA – Renewables 2025, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2025/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"China dominates the mining (60%), and refining (90%) of rare earth elements used in magnets for large onshore and offshore wind turbines. In addition, around 90% of rare earth magnet production is also located in China."

"The deployment of renewables has already reduced fuel import needs significantly in many countries, enhancing energy diversification and security. Since 2010, the world added around 2,500 GW of non-hydro renewable power capacity, about 80% of which was installed in countries that rely on fossil fuel imports."

"Without these renewable additions, cumulative global imports of coal and natural gas in these countries would have been 45% higher in 2023."

"Curtailment levels have been rising in many markets including China, Germany, Brazil, Chile, the United Kingdom and Ireland. The number of hours with negative prices has surged across multiple countries, coinciding with peak solar generation. Curtailment and negative prices signal a lack of flexibility in electricity systems and/or a mismatch between supply and demand at certain times."

"Renewables are forecast to account 18% of global heat demand by 2030, up from 14% today."

Q22 – IEA – The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Recycling would not eliminate the need for continued investment in new supply to meet climate goals, but we estimate that, by 2040, recycled quantities of copper, lithium, nickel and cobalt from spent batteries could reduce combined primary supply requirements for these minerals by around 10%."

"The combustion of oil means that new supply is essential to the continuous operation of oil-using assets. However, minerals are a component of infrastructure, with the potential to be recovered and recycled."

"Concerns about price volatility and security of supply do not disappear in an electrified, renewables-rich energy system."

Q23 – IEA-PVPS – Guidelines for Operation and Maintenance of Photovoltaic Power Plants https://iea-pvps.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/IEA-PVPS-Report-T13-25-2022-OandM-Guidelines.pdf

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

The PV plant, together with all the equipment, are then commissioned into operation with a typical lifetime of 25 to 30 years.

Q25 – IRENA – REpowering for Tripling: Advancing Wind Energy https://www.irena.org/Events/2024/Oct/REpowering-for-Tripling-Advancing-Wind-Energy

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Wind turbines, however, generally have a lifespan of 20-25 years, after which operators must decide whether to extend their operational life, repower them, or dismantle the facility."

Q26 – IRENA – Future of Wind https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Oct/IRENA_Future_of_wind_2019.pdf

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Repowering could signify either replacing entire wind turbine system components (full repowering) or upgrading older turbines or specific components (rotor, gearbox) with advanced and efficiency technologies while still retaining existing components such as the foundation and tower (partial repowering)."

A global onshore wind installed capacity of 5,044 GW by 2050 represents only a fraction (5.3%) of the global wind resource potential of at least 95,000 GW, as estimated.

The total land area required for global onshore installation of 5,044 GW by 2050 is between 1,008,800 square kilometres (km²) (around the size of Ethiopia) and 1,664,520 km² (around the size of Iran). In terms of total disrupted area, the range would be between 50,440 km² (around the size of Costa Rica) and 83,226 km² (around the size of Azerbaijan).

Q29 – IEA – Renewables 2025, Renewable electricity https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2025/renewable-electricity

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"To quantify the energy security benefits of renewable energy deployment in fuel-importing countries (excluding imports of oil and its products), we compared actual trends in capacity additions with electricity generation under a counterfactual scenario in which no new non-hydro renewable energy capacity was added after 2010 – called the Low-RES (renewable energy source) scenario."

"This means roughly 700 million tonnes of coal and 400 billion cubic metres of natural gas, together representing about 10% of total global consumption of these fuels in 2023. Assuming historical fossil fuel price trends, fuel-importing countries would have spent approximately USD 1.3 trillion more on coal and natural gas imports between 2010 and 2023."

"In the European Union, in 2023, about one-quarter of the EU electricity supply was met by imported fossil fuels, and without wind, solar PV and bioenergy, this share would have reached nearly 50%."

"This would have potentially required a doubling of fossil fuel imports, raising China's electricity supply import dependence from 7% to nearly 25%."

"In Brazil, imports of natural gas would have nearly quintupled, pushing electricity import dependence close to 30%, despite the country's large hydropower base."

Q30 – IEA – Managing Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Renewables https://www.iea.org/reports/managing-seasonal-and-interannual-variability-of-renewables

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"As wind and solar continue to grow as a proportion of generation, system level surpluses and periods of lower generation will eventually expand beyond hour-to-hour or daily variations to seasonal timescales. Addressing seasonal variability of renewables means that flexibility resources will be needed to varying extents throughout the year, even on a week-to-week or month-to-month basis."

"The study confirms that a mix of flexibility resources is needed to manage variability across all timescales and seasons. In particular, systems with very high level of VRE require seasonal flexibility services, which can be provided from existing thermal power capacities and from hydropower plants."

Q31 – IEA – Integrating Solar and Wind, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/integrating-solar-and-wind/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"While power systems have always managed demand variability, variable renewable energy (VRE) such as wind and solar PV introduces supply variability depending on the weather. This variability will require increasing the flexibility of the entire power system, by leveraging dispatchable generation, grid enhancements, increased storage and demand response. Successful integration maximises the amount of energy that can be sourced securely and affordably, minimises costly system stability measures, and reduces dependency on fossil fuels."

"Delaying the implementation of measures to support integration could jeopardise up to 15% of solar PV and wind power generation in 2030 and would likely result in up to a 20% smaller reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the power sector."

Q32 – IEA – Integrating Solar and Wind, Infographic: Six phases of Variable Renewables Integration https://www.iea.org/reports/integrating-solar-and-wind/infographic-six-phases-of-variable-renewables-integration

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The IEA's phases of VRE integration framework outlines six phases of increasing solar PV and wind impacts on the power system. Each phase presents new challenges requiring targeted measures to enable the secure and cost-effective uptake of VRE. Phases 1 to 3, considered low phases of VRE integration, experience relatively low impacts, with most challenges addressable through straightforward modifications to existing assets or operational improvements. Phases 4 to 6 are considered high phases and mark increasing influence of VRE in shaping system operations, requiring a fundamental transformation of the power system."

Q33 – IEA – Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions, Executive summary https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions/executive-summary

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The acceleration of renewable energy deployment calls for modernising distribution grids and establishing new transmission corridors to connect renewable resources – such as solar PV projects in the desert and offshore wind turbines out at sea – that are far from demand centres like cities and industrial areas."

"Modern and digital grids are vital to safeguard electricity security during clean energy transitions. As the shares of variable renewables such as solar PV and wind increase, power systems need to become more flexible to accommodate the changes in output. In a scenario consistent with meeting national climate goals, the need for system flexibility doubles between 2022 and 2030."

At least 3,000 gigawatts (GW) of renewable power projects, of which 1,500 GW are in advanced stages, are waiting in grid connection queues – equivalent to five times the amount of solar PV and wind capacity added in 2022.

"At a time of fragile natural gas markets and concerns about gas supply security, failing to build out grids increases countries’ reliance on gas. In the Grid Delay Case, global gas imports are over 80 billion cubic metres (bcm) a year higher after 2030 than in a scenario aligned with national climate targets – and coal imports nearly 50 million tonnes higher."

"Building out grids requires secure supply chains and a skilled workforce. Governments can support the expansion of supply chains by creating firm and transparent project pipelines and by standardising procurement and technical installations."

Q34 – ENTSO-E – Vision: A Power System for a Carbon Neutral Europe, Energy System Flexibility https://vision.entsoe.eu/chapters/energy-system-flexibility

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"A fully carbon neutral energy system, based on electrified consumption and on renewable electricity generation sources (mostly wind and sun), will become highly weather-dependent."

"Flexibility refers to the ability of the power system to cope with variability and uncertainty in demand, generation and grid availability."

"Short duration flexibilities (from milliseconds up to a few hours, to balance the system within the day and ensure system stability)."

"Long duration flexibilities (up to several weeks, to compensate for long periods with shortage of wind, solar and hydro generation)."

"To enable a secure transition towards carbon neutrality the deployment of both short and long duration flexibility resources will need to be coordinated with the integration of weather-dependent renewable generation sources and the phase-out of fossil-fuel generation."

Q35 – ENTSO-E – System Flexibility Needs for the Energy Transition https://www.entsoe.eu/system-flexibility/

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Pan-European flexibility needs linked to generation and demand variability are projected to double between 2025 and 2033 across all examined timeframes."

"The need for short-duration flexibility and ramping capabilities—particularly relating forecast errors and system operation—is expected to roughly double by 2030, varying based on country size and generation mix."

"vRES generation shortage events might occur 2 to 4 times annually, lasting on average up to 6-10 days and resulting in a vRES generation gap ranging between just a few MWh up to several TWh in the worst scenarios for the largest countries."

"Prolonged shortages in vRES generation are expected to have regional impact, affecting multiple neighbouring zones simultaneously, heightening the risk of system stress and reducing the mitigation effect of interconnections."

"Interconnectors will play a crucial role in mitigating flexibility needs across various timeframes, except at the time of prolonged shortages in vRES generation that affect multiple countries."

Q36 – IEA – Offshore Wind Outlook 2019 https://www.iea.org/reports/offshore-wind-outlook-2019

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Offshore wind output varies according to the strength of the wind, but its hourly variability is lower than that of solar PV. Offshore wind typically fluctuates within a narrower band, up to 20% from hour-to-hour, than is the case for solar PV, up to 40% from hour-to-hour."

"New offshore wind projects have capacity factors of 40%-50%, as larger turbines and other technology improvements are helping to make the most of available wind resources."

"Offshore wind is in a category of its own, as the only variable baseload power generation technology."

The global offshore wind market grew nearly 30% per year between 2010 and 2018, benefitting from rapid technology improvements and about 150 new offshore wind projects are in active development around the world.

Yet today's offshore wind market doesn't even come close to tapping the full potential – with high-quality resources available in most major markets, offshore wind has the potential to generate more than 420,000 TWh per year worldwide.

This is more than 18 times global electricity demand today.

Q37 – IRENA – New IRENA report highlights hydropower's evolving role https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2023/Feb/New-IRENA-report-highlights-hydropowers-evolving-role

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"However, the report underscores that most hydropower potential lies in developing countries, and financing institutions need to work together with governments to overcome local risks and limitations, and funnel much-needed investment into these regions and countries."

Q38 – IEA – Climate Impacts on African Hydropower https://www.iea.org/reports/climate-impacts-on-african-hydropower/climate-impacts-on-african-hydropower

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The projected geographical variations in hydropower capacity factors underline the importance of developing a tailored approach for each country based on the best available scientific assessments of climate impact. Indeed, the two subregions, the Congo and Zambezi river basin and the Nile basin, are attracting much of the focus for future hydropower development."

"For the reliable operation of these new hydropower plants, countries in the Congo and Zambezi river basins need to consider long-term measures to address the gradual but negative impact of climate change."

"One of the biggest challenges caused by climate change is the increased year-to-year variability in hydropower capacity factors. Increasing anomalies in climate patterns and more frequent extreme weather events are likely to make the capacity factors of African hydropower fluctuate more."

Q39 – Overland, I., Juraev, J., Vakulchuk, R. (2022): Are renewable energy sources more evenly distributed than fossil fuels? Renewable Energy 200, 379–386. ScienceDirect/Elsevier (CC BY). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122013969

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"The energy transition literature assumes that renewable energy sources are more evenly distributed globally than fossil fuels. This assumption implies that the shift from fossil fuels to renewables will enable more countries to pursue energy self-sufficiency and end their dependence on imported energy."

"The contribution of this study is to test the assumption of the even distribution of renewable energy resources on a quantitative empirical basis. Lorenz curves are compared and Gini coefficients calculated for three types of fossil fuels and three types of renewable energy in 161 countries."

"With a Gini coefficient of 0.561, hydropower resources are the most evenly distributed type of renewable energy. Solar radiation has a Gini coefficient of 0.655 and is thus less evenly distributed than hydropower. Wind, with a Gini index of 0.691, is the most unevenly distributed renewable energy resource."

"It shows that aggregate renewable energy resources (Gini coefficient = 0.657) are more evenly distributed than aggregate fossil fuel reserves (Gini coefficient = 0.802)."

"However, our second major finding is that the difference between the evenness of the distribution of renewable energy resources and the evenness of the distribution of fossil fuel reserves is not very great."

Q40 – IEA – Renewables 2025, Renewable transport https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2025/renewable-transport

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Renewable energy consumption in transport is expected to rise 50% by 2030."

"On average, net-transport-fuel-importing countries globally relied on imports for over 55% of their oil demand in 2024, compared with 60% in the scenario in which no biofuels were consumed."

"Brazil realises a 24-percentage-point decrease in import dependence."

"For gasoline, Brazil experiences the most significant impact, achieving a 45-percentage-point decrease in import dependence (nearly eliminating the need for gasoline imports) through a combination of mandates, fiscal support, GHG intensity reduction targets and the use of flex-fuel vehicles that can operate on higher ethanol blends."

Q41 – IEA – Renewables 2025, Renewable heat https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2025/renewable-heat

Last accessed: 24.08.2026

"Heat accounted for almost half of total final energy consumption and 37% of energy-related CO2 emissions in 2024."

"Renewable energy, excluding traditional uses of biomass, met only half of this increase, with its share in global heat consumption rising to 14% in 2024."

"The share of renewable energy sources in global industrial heat consumption is therefore anticipated to continue rising only slowly, from 12% in 2024 to 16% in 2030."

"Raising the share of renewables in the buildings sector heat consumption from 16% in 2024 to 21% in 2030, and displacing 5.2 EJ of fossil fuel consumption by 2030."